Bhaskarachārya
Bhaskarachārya was an Indian mathematician and astronomer who extended Brahmagupta's
work on number systems. He was born near Bijjada Bida (in present day
Bijapur district, Karnataka state, South India) into the Deshastha
Brahmin family. Bhaskara was head of an astronomical observatory at
Ujjain, the leading mathematical centre of ancient India. His
predecessors in this post had included both the noted Indian
mathematician Brahmagupta (598–c. 665) and Varahamihira. He lived in the
Sahyadri region. It has been recorded that his
great-great-great-grandfather held a hereditary post as a court scholar,
as did his son and other descendants. His father Mahesvara was as an
astrologer, who taught him mathematics, which he later passed on to his
son Loksamudra. Loksamudra's son helped to set up a school in 1207 for
the study of Bhāskara's writings
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Bhaskara (1114 – 1185) (also known as Bhaskara II and Bhaskarachārya |
Bhaskaracharya's work in Algebra, Arithmetic and Geometry catapulted
him to fame and immortality. His renowned mathematical works called Lilavati and Bijaganita
are considered to be unparalleled and a memorial to his profound
intelligence. Its translation in several languages of the world bear
testimony to its eminence. In his treatise Siddhant Shiromani he writes on planetary positions, eclipses, cosmography, mathematical techniques and astronomical equipment. In the Surya Siddhant he makes a note on the force of gravity:
"Objects fall on earth due to a force of attraction by the earth.
Therefore, the earth, planets, constellations, moon, and sun are held in
orbit due to this attraction."
Bhaskaracharya was the first to discover gravity, 500 years before
Sir Isaac Newton. He was the champion among mathematicians of ancient
and medieval India . His works fired the imagination of Persian and
European scholars, who through research on his works earned fame and
popularity.
Birth and Education of Bhaskaracharya
Ganesh Daivadnya has bestowed a very apt title on Bhaskaracharya. He has called him ‘Ganakchakrachudamani’,
which means, ‘a gem among all the calculators of astronomical
phenomena.’ Bhaskaracharya himself has written about his birth, his
place of residence, his teacher and his education, in Siddhantashiromani
as follows, ‘A place called ‘Vijjadveed’, which is surrounded by
Sahyadri ranges, where there are scholars of three Vedas, where all
branches of knowledge are studied, and where all kinds of noble people
reside, a brahmin called Maheshwar was staying, who was born in
Shandilya Gotra (in Hindu religion, Gotra is similar to lineage from a
particular person, in this case sage Shandilya), well versed in Shroud
(originated from ‘Shut’ or ‘Vedas’) and ‘Smart’ (originated from ‘Smut’)
Dharma, respected by all and who was authority in all the branches of
knowledge. I acquired knowledge at his feet’.
From this verse it is clear that Bhaskaracharya was a resident of
Vijjadveed and his father Maheshwar taught him mathematics and
astronomy. Unfortunately today we have no idea where Vijjadveed was
located. It is necessary to ardently search this place which was
surrounded by the hills of Sahyadri and which was the center of learning
at the time of Bhaskaracharya. He writes about his year of birth as
follows,
‘I was born in Shake 1036 (1114 AD) and I wrote Siddhanta Shiromani when I was 36 years old.’
Bhaskaracharya has also written about his education. Looking at the
knowledge, which he acquired in a span of 36 years, it seems impossible
for any modern student to achieve that feat in his entire life. See what
Bhaskaracharya writes about his education,
‘I have studied eight books of grammar, six texts of medicine, six
books on logic, five books of mathematics, four Vedas, five books on
Bharat Shastras, and two Mimansas’.
Bhaskaracharya calls himself a poet and most probably he was Vedanti, since he has mentioned ‘Parambrahman’ in that verse.
Siddhanta Shriomani
Bhaskaracharya wrote Siddhanta Shiromani in 1150 AD when he was 36
years old. This is a mammoth work containing about 1450 verses. It is
divided into four parts, Lilawati, Beejaganit, Ganitadhyaya and
Goladhyaya. In fact each part can be considered as separate book. The
numbers of verses in each part are as follows, Lilawati has 278,
Beejaganit has 213, Ganitadhyaya has 451 and Goladhyaya has 501 verses.
One of the most important characteristic of Siddhanta Shiromani is, it
consists of simple methods of calculations from Arithmetic to Astronomy.
Essential knowledge of ancient Indian Astronomy can be acquired by
reading only this book. Siddhanta Shiromani has surpassed all the
ancient books on astronomy in India. After Bhaskaracharya nobody could
write excellent books on mathematics and astronomy in lucid language in
India. In India, Siddhanta works used to give no proofs of any theorem.
Bhaskaracharya has also followed the same tradition.
Lilawati is an excellent example of how a difficult subject like
mathematics can be written in poetic language. Lilawati has been
translated in many languages throughout the world. When British Empire
became paramount in India, they established three universities in 1857,
at Bombay, Calcutta and Madras. Till then, for about 700 years,
mathematics was taught in India from Bhaskaracharya’s Lilawati and
Beejaganit. No other textbook has enjoyed such long lifespan.
Bhaskara's contributions to mathematics
Lilawati and Beejaganit together consist of about 500 verses. A few
important highlights of Bhaskar's mathematics are as follows:
Terms for numbers
In English, cardinal numbers are only in multiples of 1000. They have
terms such as thousand, million, billion, trillion, quadrillion etc.
Most of these have been named recently. However, Bhaskaracharya has
given the terms for numbers in multiples of ten and he says that these
terms were coined by ancients for the sake of positional values.
Bhaskar's terms for numbers are as follows:
eka(1), dasha(10), shata(100), sahastra(1000), ayuta(10,000),
laksha(100,000), prayuta (1,000,000=million), koti(107), arbuda(108),
abja(109=billion), kharva (1010), nikharva (1011), mahapadma
(1012=trillion), shanku(1013), jaladhi(1014), antya(1015=quadrillion),
Madhya (1016) and parardha(1017).
Kuttak
Kuttak is nothing but the modern indeterminate equation of first
order. The method of solution of such equations was called as
‘pulverizer’ in the western world. Kuttak means to crush to fine
particles or to pulverize. There are many kinds of Kuttaks. Let us
consider one example.
In the equation, ax + b = cy, a and b are known positive integers. We
want to also find out the values of x and y in integers. A particular
example is, 100x +90 = 63y
Bhaskaracharya gives the solution of this example as, x = 18, 81, 144, 207… And y=30, 130, 230, 330…
Indian Astronomers used such kinds of equations to solve astronomical
problems. It is not easy to find solutions of these equations but
Bhaskara has given a generalized solution to get multiple answers.
Chakrawaal
Chakrawaal is the “indeterminate equation of second order” in western
mathematics. This type of equation is also called Pell’s equation.
Though the equation is recognized by his name Pell had never solved the
equation. Much before Pell, the equation was solved by an ancient and
eminent Indian mathematician, Brahmagupta (628 AD). The solution is
given in his Brahmasphutasiddhanta. Bhaskara modified the method and
gave a general solution of this equation. For example, consider the
equation 61x2 + 1 = y2. Bhaskara gives the values of x = 22615398 and y =
1766319049
There is an interesting history behind this very equation. The Famous
French mathematician Pierre de Fermat (1601-1664) asked his friend
Bessy to solve this very equation. Bessy used to solve the problems in
his head like present day Shakuntaladevi. Bessy failed to solve the
problem. After about 100 years another famous French mathematician
solved this problem. But his method is lengthy and could find a
particular solution only, while Bhaskara gave the solution for five
cases. In his book ‘History of mathematics’, see what Carl Boyer says
about this equation,
‘In connection with the Pell’s equation ax2 + 1 = y2, Bhaskara gave
particular solutions for five cases, a = 8, 11, 32, 61, and 67, for 61x2
+ 1 = y2, for example he gave the solutions, x = 226153980 and y =
1766319049, this is an impressive feat in calculations and its
verifications alone will tax the efforts of the reader’
Henceforth the so-called Pell’s equation should be recognized as ‘Brahmagupta-Bhaskaracharya equation’.
Simple mathematical methods
Bhaskara has given simple methods to find the squares, square roots,
cube, and cube roots of big numbers. He has proved the Pythagoras
theorem in only two lines. The famous Pascal Triangle was Bhaskara’s
‘Khandameru’. Bhaskara has given problems on that number triangle.
Pascal was born 500 years after Bhaskara. Several problems on
permutations and combinations are given in Lilawati. Bhaskar. He has
called the method ‘ankapaash’. Bhaskara has given an approximate value
of PI as 22/7 and more accurate value as 3.1416. He knew the concept of
infinity and called it as ‘khahar rashi’, which means ‘anant’. It seems
that Bhaskara had not notions about calculus, One of his equations in
modern notation can be written as, d(sin (w)) = cos (w) dw.
A Summary of Bhaskara's contributions
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Bhaskarachārya |
A proof of the Pythagorean theorem by calculating the same area in
two different ways and then canceling out terms to get a² + b² = c².
In Lilavati, solutions of quadratic, cubic and quartic indeterminate equations.
Solutions of indeterminate quadratic equations (of the type ax² + b = y²).
Integer solutions of linear and quadratic indeterminate equations
(Kuttaka). The rules he gives are (in effect) the same as those given by
the Renaissance European mathematicians of the 17th century
A cyclic Chakravala method for solving indeterminate equations of
the form ax² + bx + c = y. The solution to this equation was
traditionally attributed to William Brouncker in 1657, though his method
was more difficult than the chakravala method.
His method for finding the solutions of the problem x² − ny² = 1
(so-called "Pell's equation") is of considerable interest and
importance.
Solutions of Diophantine equations of the second order, such as 61x²
+ 1 = y². This very equation was posed as a problem in 1657 by the
French mathematician Pierre de Fermat, but its solution was unknown in
Europe until the time of Euler in the 18th century.
Solved quadratic equations with more than one unknown, and found negative and irrational solutions.
Preliminary concept of mathematical analysis.
Preliminary concept of infinitesimal calculus, along with notable contributions towards integral calculus.
Conceived differential calculus, after discovering the derivative and differential coefficient.
Stated Rolle's theorem, a special case of one of the most important
theorems in analysis, the mean value theorem. Traces of the general mean
value theorem are also found in his works.
Calculated the derivatives of trigonometric functions and formulae. (See Calculus section below.)
In Siddhanta Shiromani, Bhaskara developed spherical trigonometry
along with a number of other trigonometric results. (See Trigonometry
section below.)
Arithmetic
Bhaskara's arithmetic text Lilavati covers the topics of definitions,
arithmetical terms, interest computation, arithmetical and geometrical
progressions, plane geometry, solid geometry, the shadow of the gnomon,
methods to solve indeterminate equations, and combinations.
Lilavati is divided into 13 chapters and covers many branches of
mathematics, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and a little trigonometry
and mensuration. More specifically the contents include:
Definitions.
Properties of zero (including division, and rules of operations with zero).
Further extensive numerical work, including use of negative numbers and surds.
Estimation of π.
Arithmetical terms, methods of multiplication, and squaring.
Inverse rule of three, and rules of 3, 5, 7, 9, and 11.
Problems involving interest and interest computation.
Arithmetical and geometrical progressions.
Plane (geometry).
Solid geometry.
Permutations and combinations.
Indeterminate equations (Kuttaka), integer solutions (first and
second order). His contributions to this topic are particularly
important, since the rules he gives are (in effect) the same as those
given by the renaissance European mathematicians of the 17th century,
yet his work was of the 12th century. Bhaskara's method of solving was
an improvement of the methods found in the work of Aryabhata and
subsequent mathematicians.
His work is outstanding for its systemisation, improved methods and
the new topics that he has introduced. Furthermore the Lilavati
contained excellent recreative problems and it is thought that
Bhaskara's intention may have been that a student of 'Lilavati' should
concern himself with the mechanical application of the method.
Algebra
His Bijaganita ("Algebra") was a work in twelve chapters. It was the
first text to recognize that a positive number has two square roots (a
positive and negative square root). His work Bijaganita is effectively a
treatise on algebra and contains the following topics:
Positive and negative numbers.
Zero.
The 'unknown' (includes determining unknown quantities).
Determining unknown quantities.
Surds (includes evaluating surds).
Kuttaka (for solving indeterminate equations and Diophantine equations).
Simple equations (indeterminate of second, third and fourth degree).
Simple equations with more than one unknown.
Indeterminate quadratic equations (of the type ax² + b = y²).
Solutions of indeterminate equations of the second, third and fourth degree.
Quadratic equations.
Quadratic equations with more than one unknown.
Operations with products of several unknowns.
Bhaskara derived a cyclic, chakravala method for solving
indeterminate quadratic equations of the form ax² + bx + c = y.
Bhaskara's method for finding the solutions of the problem Nx² + 1 = y²
(the so-called "Pell's equation") is of considerable importance.
He gave the general solutions of:
Pell's equation using the chakravala method.
The indeterminate quadratic equation using the chakravala method.
He also solved:
Cubic equations.
Quartic equations.
Indeterminate cubic equations.
Indeterminate quartic equations.
Indeterminate higher-order polynomial equations.
Trigonometry
The Siddhanta Shiromani (written in 1150) demonstrates Bhaskara's
knowledge of trigonometry, including the sine table and relationships
between different trigonometric functions. He also discovered spherical
trigonometry, along with other interesting trigonometrical results. In
particular Bhaskara seemed more interested in trigonometry for its own
sake than his predecessors who saw it only as a tool for calculation.
Among the many interesting results given by Bhaskara, discoveries first
found in his works include the now well known results for \sin\left(a +
b\right) and \sin\left(a - b\right) :
Calculus
His work, the Siddhanta Shiromani, is an astronomical treatise and
contains many theories not found in earlier works. Preliminary concepts
of infinitesimal calculus and mathematical analysis, along with a number
of results in trigonometry, differential calculus and integral calculus
that are found in the work are of particular interest.
Evidence suggests Bhaskara was acquainted with some ideas of
differential calculus. It seems, however, that he did not understand the
utility of his researches, and thus historians of mathematics generally
neglect this achievement. Bhaskara also goes deeper into the
'differential calculus' and suggests the differential coefficient
vanishes at an extremum value of the function, indicating knowledge of
the concept of 'infinitesimals'.
There is evidence of an early form of Rolle's theorem in his work:
If f\left(a\right) = f\left(b\right) = 0 then f'\left(x\right) = 0 for some \ x with \ a < x < b
He gave the result that if x \approx y then \sin(y) - \sin(x)
\approx (y - x)\cos(y), thereby finding the derivative of sine, although
he never developed the general concept of differentiation.
Bhaskara uses this result to work out the position angle of the
ecliptic, a quantity required for accurately predicting the time of an
eclipse.
In computing the instantaneous motion of a planet, the time interval
between successive positions of the planets was no greater than a
truti, or a 1⁄33750 of a second, and his measure of velocity was
expressed in this infinitesimal unit of time.
He was aware that when a variable attains the maximum value, its differential vanishes.
He also showed that when a planet is at its farthest from the earth,
or at its closest, the equation of the centre (measure of how far a
planet is from the position in which it is predicted to be, by assuming
it is to move uniformly) vanishes. He therefore concluded that for some
intermediate position the differential of the equation of the centre is
equal to zero. In this result, there are traces of the general mean
value theorem, one of the most important theorems in analysis, which
today is usually derived from Rolle's theorem. The mean value theorem
was later found by Parameshvara in the 15th century in the Lilavati
Bhasya, a commentary on Bhaskara's Lilavati.
Madhava (1340-1425) and the Kerala School mathematicians (including
Parameshvara) from the 14th century to the 16th century expanded on
Bhaskara's work and further advanced the development of calculus in
India.
Astronomy
Using an astronomical model developed by Brahmagupta in the 7th
century, Bhaskara accurately defined many astronomical quantities,
including, for example, the length of the sidereal year, the time that
is required for the Earth to orbit the Sun, as 365.2588 days[citation
needed] which is same as in Suryasiddhanta. The modern accepted
measurement is 365.2563 days, a difference of just 3.5 minutes.
His mathematical astronomy text Siddhanta Shiromani is written in two
parts: the first part on mathematical astronomy and the second part on
the sphere.
The twelve chapters of the first part cover topics such as:
Mean longitudes of the planets.
True longitudes of the planets.
The three problems of diurnal rotation.
Syzygies.
Lunar eclipses.
Solar eclipses.
Latitudes of the planets.
Sunrise equation
The Moon's crescent.
Conjunctions of the planets with each other.
Conjunctions of the planets with the fixed stars.
The patas of the Sun and Moon.
The second part contains thirteen chapters on the sphere. It covers topics such as:
Praise of study of the sphere.
Nature of the sphere.
Cosmography and geography.
Planetary mean motion.
Eccentric epicyclic model of the planets.
The armillary sphere.
Spherical trigonometry.
Ellipse calculations.[citation needed]
First visibilities of the planets.
Calculating the lunar crescent.
Astronomical instruments.
The seasons.
Problems of astronomical calculations.
Ganitadhyaya and Goladhyaya of Siddhanta Shiromani are devoted to
astronomy. All put together there are about 1000 verses. Almost all
aspects of astronomy are considered in these two books. Some of the
highlights are worth mentioning.
Earth’s circumference and diameter
Bhaskara has given a very simple method to determine the
circumference of the Earth. According to this method, first find out the
distance between two places, which are on the same longitude. Then find
the correct latitudes of those two places and difference between the
latitudes. Knowing the distance between two latitudes, the distance that
corresponds to 360 degrees can be easily found, which the circumference
of is the Earth. For example, Satara and Kolhapur are two cities on
almost the same longitude. The difference between their latitudes is one
degree and the distance between them is 110 kilometers. Then the
circumference of the Earth is 110 X 360 = 39600 kilometers. Once the
circumference is fixed it is easy to calculate the diameter. Bhaskara
gave the value of the Earth’s circumference as 4967 ‘yojane’ (1 yojan =
8 km), which means 39736 kilometers. His value of the diameter of the
Earth is 1581 yojane i.e. 12648 km. The modern values of the
circumference and the diameter of the Earth are 40212 and 12800
kilometers respectively. The values given by Bhaskara are astonishingly
close.
Aksha kshetre
For astronomical calculations, Bhaskara selected a set of eight right
angle triangles, similar to each other. The triangles are called ‘aksha
kshetre’. One of the angles of all the triangles is the local latitude.
If the complete information of one triangle is known, then the
information of all the triangles is automatically known. Out of these
eight triangles, complete information of one triangle can be obtained by
an actual experiment. Then using all eight triangles virtually hundreds
of ratios can be obtained. This method can be used to solve many
problems in astronomy.
Geocentric parallax
Ancient Indian Astronomers knew that there was a difference between
the actual observed timing of a solar eclipse and timing of the eclipse
calculated from mathematical formulae. This is because calculation of an
eclipse is done with reference to the center of the Earth, while the
eclipse is observed from the surface of the Earth. The angle made by the
Sun or the Moon with respect to the Earth’s radius is known as
parallax. Bhaskara knew the concept of parallax, which he has termed as
‘lamban’. He realized that parallax was maximum when the Sun or the Moon
was on the horizon, while it was zero when they were at zenith. The
maximum parallax is now called Geocentric Horizontal Parallax. By
applying the correction for parallax exact timing of a solar eclipse
from the surface of the Earth can be determined.
Yantradhyay
In this chapter of Goladhyay, Bhaskar has discussed eight
instruments, which were useful for observations. The names of these
instruments are, Gol yantra (armillary sphere), Nadi valay (equatorial
sun dial), Ghatika yantra, Shanku (gnomon), Yashti yantra, Chakra,
Chaap, Turiya, and Phalak yantra. Out of these eight instruments
Bhaskara was fond of Phalak yantra, which he made with skill and
efforts. He argued that ‘ this yantra will be extremely useful to
astronomers to calculate accurate time and understand many astronomical
phenomena’. Bhaskara’s Phalak yantra was probably a precursor of the
‘astrolabe’ used during medieval times.
Dhee yantra
This instrument deserves to be mentioned specially. The word ‘dhee’
means ‘ Buddhi’ i.e. intelligence. The idea was that the intelligence of
human being itself was an instrument. If an intelligent person gets a
fine, straight and slender stick at his/her disposal he/she can find out
many things just by using that stick. Here Bhaskara was talking about
extracting astronomical information by using an ordinary stick. One can
use the stick and its shadow to find the time, to fix geographical
north, south, east, and west. One can find the latitude of a place by
measuring the minimum length of the shadow on the equinoctial days or
pointing the stick towards the North Pole. One can also use the stick to
find the height and distance of a tree even if the tree is beyond a
lake.
A GLANCE AT THE ASTRONOMICAL ACHIEVEMENTS OF BHASKARACHARYA
The Earth is not flat, has no support and has a power of attraction.
The north and south poles of the Earth experience six months of day and six months of night.
One day of Moon is equivalent to 15 earth-days and one night is also equivalent to 15 earth-days.
Earth’s atmosphere extends to 96 kilometers and has seven parts.
There is a vacuum beyond the Earth’s atmosphere.
He had knowledge of precession of equinoxes. He took the value of
its shift from the first point of Aries as 11 degrees. However, at that
time it was about 12 degrees.
Ancient Indian Astronomers used to define a reference point called
‘Lanka’. It was defined as the point of intersection of the longitude
passing through Ujjaini and the equator of the Earth. Bhaskara has
considered three cardinal places with reference to Lanka, the Yavakoti
at 90 degrees east of Lanka, the Romak at 90 degrees west of Lanka and
Siddhapoor at 180 degrees from Lanka. He then accurately suggested that,
when there is a noon at Lanka, there should be sunset at Yavkoti and
sunrise at Romak and midnight at Siddhapoor.
Bhaskaracharya had accurately calculated apparent orbital periods of
the Sun and orbital periods of Mercury, Venus, and Mars. There is
slight difference between the orbital periods he calculated for Jupiter
and Saturn and the corresponding modern values.
Engineering
The earliest reference to a perpetual motion machine date back to
1150, when Bhāskara II described a wheel that he claimed would run
forever.
Bhāskara II used a measuring device known as Yasti-yantra. This
device could vary from a simple stick to V-shaped staffs designed
specifically for determining angles with the help of a calibrated scale.
After knowing all these about our ancestors, of how rich our culture was before the white invaders came. I think its high time that we must change what RUBBISH is being taught to our school children. But the main problem lies with the unavailability of proper/original documents and books which they wrort in that time.
So sad the white Invaders were so jealous of our fame that they burnt ALL the books and literature at Taxilla. You know it took 6 months to burn all those holy books.
If you look up at the wikipedia its completely wrong. They have written every thing wrong. they say the Taxilla was a leading university at that time around 5 AD and it was suddenly shut down. Why? only their sources know. I wont comment more on this as because i dont have much proof on this to make you believe.
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